植物科学

CRISPR/Cas9-based genome editing is a powerful approach for functional genomics and bioenergy research in woody plants. However, conventional single guide RNA (gRNA) strategies predominantly generate small insertions or deletions that may not fully disrupt gene function and often require extensive sequencing for mutation identification. Here, we present an optimized protocol for the efficient generation of large-fragment deletion mutants in Populus tremula × P. alba clone INRA 717-1B4 using a dual-gRNA CRISPR/Cas9 system. Co-expression of two gRNAs flanking the target region induces double-strand breaks at both sites, enabling the deletion of the intervening genomic fragment, typically larger than 50 bp. This protocol describes step-by-step procedures for gRNA design, vector construction, Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, plant regeneration, and molecular validation. Using the PtFBX230 gene as a representative target, large deletions are readily identified by conventional PCR and agarose gel electrophoresis, enabling rapid and cost-effective genotyping. This protocol can be readily adopted to other loci in poplar and related woody species and provides a robust framework for generating null alleles to support functional genomics and bioenergy-related trait engineering in woody plants.

In vivo imaging of brown algal cells in 3D is extremely challenging because of the presence of pigments, such as fucoxanthin and chlorophyll, that diffract light. Moreover, brown algae live in seawater, a high ionic environment that can change the fluorochrome behavior or cause aggregates. Despite the importance of in vivo monitoring the developmental process of brown algal tissues, 4D imaging (x, y, z, t) on a conventional fluorescence microscope is limited. Here, we propose a detailed protocol using a new orange-emitting fluorochrome, styryl benzoindoleninium sulfonate (SBIS), suitable for labeling the plasma membrane of brown algal cells and multicolor in vivo imaging in 3D using confocal and light sheet microscopy. Unlike calcofluor white (CFW), SBIS enables the observation of brown algal cells at thicknesses up to 25 μm and over periods up to 7 days on brown algae such as Ectocarpus sp., Sphacelaria rigidula, and Saccharina latissima. This step-by-step protocol includes labeling of brown algal tissues, mounting for 3D confocal time-lapse microscopy, and mounting for 3D time-lapse light sheet microscopy. The imaging setup and parameters have been optimized for minimizing toxicity for brown algal tissues, improving signal-to-noise ratio, and enabling detailed visualization of cell shape. Therefore, this protocol provides robust and multiplexed imaging with 4D visualization of brown algal cell shape throughout the brown algae growth, offering broad applications to brown algae study at the cellular level.

Peroxisomal β-oxidation is a key step in jasmonic acid biosynthesis. Quantitative biochemical characterization of enzymes involved in the β-oxidation pathway is essential for validating their catalytic functions and comparing differences among genetic variants. Existing enzyme activity assays largely rely on chromatographic techniques to quantify substrate consumption or product formation, but these approaches are not well-suited for high-throughput or continuous kinetic measurements. Here, we describe a spectrophotometric assay based on a plate reader determining OsAIM1 enzymatic activity by monitoring the decrease in NADH absorbance at 340 nm. The method employs a 96-well plate reaction system, enabling real-time kinetic measurements and providing a standardized workflow for calculating reaction rates. Reaction components, protein concentration ranges, and data processing parameters were systematically optimized to ensure linearity, reproducibility, and quantitative accuracy. This assay is simple to perform, requires small reaction volumes, and offers relatively high throughput, making it suitable for functional characterization and kinetic analysis of NADH-dependent enzymes.

Rice lodicules are specialized floral organs located at the base of the ovary that undergo dynamic morphological changes during the flowering period. Water uptake–driven swelling and subsequent dehydration-induced shrinkage of the lodicules trigger floret opening and closure, respectively. Although lodicules play a central role in floret movement, standardized methods for quantitatively monitoring their temporal morphological changes remain limited. Here, we describe a detailed and reproducible workflow for lodicule sampling, dissection, imaging, and quantitative morphometric analysis. Florets are collected at predefined clock time points during the flowering period, and lodicules are carefully isolated under a stereomicroscope. High-resolution imaging is performed under consistent acquisition settings, followed by precise measurement of lodicule length, width, and thickness using image analysis software. This protocol emphasizes positional consistency in sampling, uniform imaging parameters, and standardized data analysis to enhance reproducibility. This method is suitable for evaluating the effects of genetic background or environmental conditions on lodicule morphology. By providing a standardized analytical framework, this protocol enables accurate and quantitative morphometric analysis of rice lodicules during floret opening.

The canonical role of transfer RNAs (tRNAs) in protein synthesis has been extensively characterized; however, recent studies have uncovered novel functions for tRNA as a mediator of long-distance signaling in plants. Several studies have identified dicistronic tRNA-mRNA transcripts that contain a tRNA gene and an adjacent protein-coding gene (PCG) that are transcribed as a single unit. These transcripts are associated with RNA systemic mobility through the plant’s vascular tissues, potentially acting as non-cell-autonomous signaling messengers in coordinating development and stress responses. Here, we report a computational pipeline to detect dicistronic tRNA-mRNA transcripts from short-read next-generation RNA-sequencing datasets; to our knowledge, this is the only established pipeline for the systematic identification of such candidates in plants. The dicistronic RNA transcript version 2 (v2) described here improves on the earlier version DiRT v1 by expanding the repertoire of dicistronic transcripts detected to include tRNA-like structures (TLS) as well as functional tRNAs, which were already supported in the pipeline. The updated protocol also includes detection of dicistronic tRNA or TLS sequences within genomic features such as untranslated regions (UTRs). The accurate detection of both tRNAs and UTR-embedded tRNA-like sequences (TLS) is critical, as these RNA structures have been reported to function as mediators of long-distance RNA mobility. Furthermore, as NGS datasets are prone to sequencing artifacts and potential DNA contamination, we improved the pipeline’s statistical robustness by including read coverage of flanking intronic regions as a baseline control. To account for potential DNA contamination during RNA-seq library preparation, detected tRNA-mRNA transcripts are deemed as putatively dicistronic only if the coverage of their intergenic region is significantly higher (Student’s t-test, FDR < 0.05) than flanking intronic regions. Furthermore, the updated pipeline allows this statistical test to be applied to intronless and single-intron genes. Using this updated protocol, we identified novel tRNA and TLS dicistronic transcripts in both grapevine (Vitis spp. Ruggeri 140) and Arabidopsis thaliana datasets and validated in vitro using RT-PCR. We provide a fast and reliable method to detect dicistronic transcripts that can be applied to any short-read RNA-sequencing dataset, fast-tracking the functional characterization of these newly emerging transcripts.

Conventional light microscopy is limited in resolution by the diffraction limit of light, restricting the visualization of the nanoscale organization of biomolecules. Expansion microscopy (ExM) has emerged as a powerful technique to overcome this barrier by physically expanding the specimen embedded in a swellable hydrogel without requiring specialized or high-cost imaging hardware. ExM is widely used in animal models, whereas its application to plant tissues has been challenging due to their multicellularity, in which each cell is encompassed by the rigid cell wall, which resists the expansion forces and prevents isotropic swelling. Here, we describe a robust and optimized ExM protocol specifically designed for Arabidopsis thaliana root tissues. This protocol details critical steps, including immunostaining, anchoring, gelation, denaturation, cell wall digestion, and expansion. Our method achieves an expansion factor of approximately 4.3×, enabling an effective lateral resolution of ~60 nm using a standard confocal microscope. We demonstrate the visualization of microtubules with preserved ultrastructure. This accessible protocol allows plant researchers to perform super-resolution imaging without specialized optical equipment, facilitating detailed structural analysis of plant cells.

The activity of chloroplast ATP synthase (CF_oCF₁) is precisely regulated through a thioredoxin (Trx)-mediated dithiol/disulfide reaction in response to varying light conditions. This regulatory mechanism is further controlled by ΔpH formation across the thylakoid membrane. To better understand this complicating regulatory function of CF_oCF₁, a method is required to evaluate the extent of CF_oCF₁ reduction by Trx under controlled ΔpH conditions and to directly evaluate the redox state of CF_oCF₁. In this study, we present a simple in vitro procedure to assess the CF_oCF₁ reduction system using spinach thylakoids. The method consists of three key steps: (A) simple preparation of intact thylakoids from spinach leaves; (B) reduction of CF_oCF₁ on the thylakoid membrane using recombinant Trx under light irradiation; and (C) in situ determination of the redox state of CF_oCF₁ by labeling thiol groups with a maleimide reagent followed by protein detection using western blotting. The redox state of CF_oCF₁ was determined by mobility shifts on non-reducing SDS-PAGE. This protocol provides a refined strategy for elucidating the regulatory mechanism controlling energy conversion by CF_oCF₁ under fluctuating photosynthetic conditions.

Volume electron microscopy based on serial sectioning allows for three-dimensional (3D) visualization and analysis of the internal structures of tissues, cells, and organelles. One such technique, focused ion beam (FIB) scanning electron microscopy (SEM), has the advantages of nanoscale sectioning and high z-resolution, but the disadvantage of limited volume processing. Because of this limitation, targeting localized objects by FIB-SEM is difficult. Here, we developed a FIB-SEM observation workflow that enables the analysis of the filiform apparatus of synergid cells enclosed in the Arabidopsis ovule. In this protocol, plant samples are stained, embedded, trimmed, and carbon-coated while maintaining their orientation within the tissue. Then, sequential observations are performed using Cut & See function of FIB-SEM, followed by image processing for 3D reconstruction. Utilization of multi-scanning and image cropping from high-resolution data helps to identify localized targets within plant tissue. The filiform apparatus, which is an invaginated cell wall structure of the synergid cells, shows distinct contrast in each image, allowing for segmentation using brightness-based binarization. Such segmentation avoids the need to manually trace complex structures and facilitates 3D reconstruction by volume electron microscopy.

Understanding cellular growth dynamics in plants requires precise, long-term imaging of developing tissues. Cauline leaves are produced during the transition from vegetative to reproductive development and provide a useful system for studying how laminar organs diversify in form and function. While other laminar organs, such as rosette leaves and sepals, have been extensively studied, early cauline leaf development remains technically challenging to capture due to their concealed position, curved morphology, and the presence of dense trichomes. Here, we provide a complete pipeline for the dissection, confocal imaging, 2.5D segmentation, and image analysis of initiating cauline leaves in Arabidopsis thaliana. This method enables reproducible, high-resolution imaging of cauline leaves, supporting robust quantitative analysis of growth across developmental stages at cellular scale resolution.

Cellular function relies on a network of precisely regulated interactions among macromolecules such as proteins, peptides, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. These molecular interactions regulate vital processes, including signaling, structural organization, and developmental patterning. Biolayer interferometry (BLI) is a label-free optical biosensing technique that enables real-time quantification of such interactions. This protocol describes how to use BLI to assess the binding affinity between a biotinylated plant peptide hormone (RALF1) and cell wall–derived oligogalacturonides (OG25–50) on the Octet RED96 platform. Streptavidin-coated biosensors are employed to immobilize the ligand, while analyte binding is monitored through wavelength shifts in the reflected light. The protocol includes detailed steps for sensor preparation, assay setup, software configuration, and kinetic data analysis. While optimized for plant peptide–matrix interactions, the method is broadly adaptable to other macromolecular systems across biological disciplines.