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Immunology

EAE Induction by Passive Transfer of MOG-specific CD4+ T Cells

Authors: Yuki Tanaka*
Yuki TanakaAffiliation: Division of Molecular Neuroimmunology, Institute for Genetic Medicine and Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
Bio-protocol author page: a4755
, Yasunobu Arima*
Yasunobu ArimaAffiliation: Division of Molecular Neuroimmunology, Institute for Genetic Medicine and Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
Bio-protocol author page: a4756
, Kotaro Higuchi
Kotaro HiguchiAffiliation: Division of Molecular Neuroimmunology, Institute for Genetic Medicine and Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
Bio-protocol author page: a4757
, Takuto Ohki
Takuto OhkiAffiliation: Division of Molecular Neuroimmunology, Institute for Genetic Medicine and Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
Bio-protocol author page: a4758
, Mohamed Elfeky
Mohamed ElfekyAffiliation: Division of Molecular Neuroimmunology, Institute for Genetic Medicine and Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
Bio-protocol author page: a4759
, Mitsutoshi Ota
Mitsutoshi OtaAffiliation: Division of Molecular Neuroimmunology, Institute for Genetic Medicine and Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
Bio-protocol author page: a4760
, Daisuke Kamimura
Daisuke KamimuraAffiliation: Division of Molecular Neuroimmunology, Institute for Genetic Medicine and Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
For correspondence: kamimura@igm.hokudai.ac.jp
Bio-protocol author page: a4761
 and Masaaki Murakami
Masaaki MurakamiAffiliation: Division of Molecular Neuroimmunology, Institute for Genetic Medicine and Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
For correspondence: murakami@igm.hokudai.ac.jp
Bio-protocol author page: a4762
 (*contributed equally to this work),  date: 7/5/2017, 126 views, 0 Q&A
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.2370.

[Abstract] Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is an animal model of multiple sclerosis (MS), which is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS). It is characterized by focal demyelination and inflammatory responses mediated by myelin-specific autoreactive CD4+ T cells. Using a passive transfer model of EAE in mice, we have ...

Isolation and Infection of Drosophila Primary Hemocytes

Authors: Charles Tracy
Charles TracyAffiliation: Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
Bio-protocol author page: a4450
 and Helmut Krämer
Helmut KrämerAffiliation 1: Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
Affiliation 2: Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
Affiliation 3: Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
For correspondence: helmut.kramer@utsouthwestern.edu
Bio-protocol author page: a4451
,  date: 6/5/2017, 317 views, 0 Q&A
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.2300.

[Abstract] Phagocytosis of invading pathogens and their subsequent clearance in lysosomes is important for organismal fitness. We have devised the following protocol to extract phagocytic hemocytes from wild-type and mutant Drosophila larvae and infect the isolated hemocytes with GFP-labeled E. coli to measure the rate of phagocytosis and degradation within individual ...

Escherichia coli Infection of Drosophila

Authors: Charles Tracy
Charles TracyAffiliation: Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, USA
Bio-protocol author page: a4450
 and Helmut Krämer
Helmut KrämerAffiliation 1: Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, USA
Affiliation 2: Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, USA
For correspondence: helmut.kramer@utsouthwestern.edu
Bio-protocol author page: a4451
,  date: 5/5/2017, 429 views, 0 Q&A
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.2256.

[Abstract] Following septic insults, healthy insects, just like vertebrates, mount a complex immune response to contain and destroy pathogens. The failure to efficiently clear bacterial infections in immuno-compromised fly mutants leads to higher mortality rates which provide a powerful indicator for genes with important roles in innate immunity. The following ...

Lentiviral Barcode Labeling and Transplantation of Fetal Liver Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells

Authors: Trine A. Kristiansen
Trine A. KristiansenAffiliation: Division of Molecular Hematology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Lund Stem Cell Center, Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Bio-protocol author page: a4393
, Alexander Doyle
Alexander Doyle Affiliation: Division of Molecular Hematology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Lund Stem Cell Center, Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Bio-protocol author page: a4394
 and Joan Yuan
Joan YuanAffiliation: Division of Molecular Hematology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Lund Stem Cell Center, Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
For correspondence: joan.yuan@med.lu.se
Bio-protocol author page: a4395
,  date: 4/20/2017, 467 views, 0 Q&A
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.2242.

[Abstract] Cellular barcoding enables the dissection of clonal dynamics in heterogeneous cell populations through single cell lineage tracing. The labeling of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) with unique and heritable DNA barcodes, makes it possible to resolve donor cell heterogeneity in terms of differentiation potential and lineage bias at the ...

Protocol for Murine/Mouse Platelets Isolation and Their Reintroduction in vivo

Authors: Jae Hong Im
Jae Hong ImAffiliation: CRUK-MRC Oxford Institute for Radiation Oncology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Bio-protocol author page: a4021
 and Ruth J. Muschel
Ruth J. MuschelAffiliation: CRUK-MRC Oxford Institute for Radiation Oncology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
For correspondence: ruth.muschel@oncology.ox.ac.uk
Bio-protocol author page: a4022
,  date: 2/20/2017, 1154 views, 0 Q&A
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.2132.

[Abstract] Platelets and coagulation have long been known to be essential for metastasis in experimental models. In order to study the interactions between tumor cells, platelets and endothelium, we have adapted methods used in coagulation research for the isolation of platelets and their reintroduction into mice. Anti-coagulated murine blood served as the source ...

Simultaneous Intranasal/Intravascular Antibody Labeling of CD4+ T Cells in Mouse Lungs

Authors: Yanqun Wang*
Yanqun WangAffiliation: State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases, Guangzhou Institute of Respiratory Disease, the First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
Bio-protocol author page: a3996
, Jing Sun*
Jing SunAffiliation: State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases, Guangzhou Institute of Respiratory Disease, the First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
Bio-protocol author page: a3997
, Rudragouda Channappanavar
Rudragouda ChannappanavarAffiliation: Departments of Microbiology, University of Iowa, Iowa, USA
Bio-protocol author page: a3999
, Jingxian Zhao
Jingxian ZhaoAffiliation: State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases, Guangzhou Institute of Respiratory Disease, the First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
Bio-protocol author page: a3998
, Stanley Perlman
Stanley PerlmanAffiliation: Departments of Microbiology, University of Iowa, Iowa, USA
For correspondence: stanley-perlman@uiowa.edu
Bio-protocol author page: a1251
 and Jincun Zhao
Jincun ZhaoAffiliation: State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases, Guangzhou Institute of Respiratory Disease, the First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou
For correspondence: zhaojincun@gird.cn
Bio-protocol author page: a1250
 (*contributed equally to this work),  date: 1/5/2017, 994 views, 0 Q&A
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.2099.

[Abstract] CD4+ T cell responses have been shown to be protective in many respiratory virus infections. In the respiratory tract, CD4+ T cells include cells in the airway and parenchyma and cells adhering to the pulmonary vasculature. Here we discuss in detail the methods that are useful for characterizing CD4+ T cells in different anatomic locations in mouse ...

FICZ Exposure and Viral Infection in Mice

Authors: Taisho Yamada
Taisho YamadaAffiliation: Division of Signaling in Cancer and Immunology, Institute for Genetic Medicine, Molecular Medical Biochemistry Unit, Biological Chemistry and Engineering Course, Graduate School of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
Bio-protocol author page: a3976
 and Akinori Takaoka
Akinori TakaokaAffiliation: Division of Signaling in Cancer and Immunology, Institute for Genetic Medicine, Molecular Medical Biochemistry Unit, Biological Chemistry and Engineering Course, Graduate School of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
For correspondence: takaoka@igm.hokudai.ac.jp
Bio-protocol author page: a2879
,  date: 1/5/2017, 929 views, 0 Q&A
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.2096.

[Abstract] The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) is known as a sensor for dioxins that mediates their toxicity, and also has important biophysiological roles such as circadian rhythms, cell differentiation and immune responses. 6-formylindolo(3,2-b)carbazole (FICZ), which is derived through the metabolism of L-tryptophan by ultraviolet B irradiation, is one of ...

Establishment of Patient-Derived Xenografts in Mice

Authors: Dongkyoo Park
Dongkyoo ParkAffiliation: Division of Cancer Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Emory University School of Medicine and Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
Bio-protocol author page: a3712
, Dongsheng Wang
Dongsheng WangAffiliation: Division of Cancer Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Emory University School of Medicine and Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
Bio-protocol author page: a3713
, Guo Chen
Guo ChenAffiliation: Division of Cancer Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Emory University School of Medicine and Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
Bio-protocol author page: a3714
 and Xingming Deng
Xingming DengAffiliation: Division of Cancer Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Emory University School of Medicine and Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
For correspondence: xdeng4@emory.edu
Bio-protocol author page: a3715
,  date: 11/20/2016, 1555 views, 0 Q&A
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.2008.

[Abstract] Patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models for cancer research have recently attracted considerable attention in both the academy and industry (Hidalgo et al., 2014; Wilding and Bodmer, 2014). PDX models have been developed from different tumor types including lung cancer to improve the drug development process. These models are used for pre-clinical drug ...

In vivo Analysis of Neutrophil Infiltration during LPS-induced Peritonitis

Authors: Lucia de Almeida
Lucia de AlmeidaAffiliation: Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, USA
Bio-protocol author page: a3548
, Andrea Dorfleutner
Andrea DorfleutnerAffiliation: Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, USA
For correspondence: a-dorfleutner@northwestern.edu
Bio-protocol author page: a3549
 and Christian Stehlik
Christian StehlikAffiliation: Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, USA
For correspondence: c-stehlik@northwestern.edu
Bio-protocol author page: a3550
,  date: 10/5/2016, 1453 views, 0 Q&A
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.1945.

[Abstract] Bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is present in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria and functions as pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) (Whitfield and Trent, 2014). LPS therefore is a potent activator of inflammatory responses leading to cytokine release and neutrophils recruitment. The lipid A moiety of LPS activates the complex ...

ASC-particle-induced Peritonitis

Authors: Lucia de Almeida
Lucia de AlmeidaAffiliation: Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, USA
Bio-protocol author page: a3548
, Andrea Dorfleutner
Andrea DorfleutnerAffiliation: Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, USA
For correspondence: a-dorfleutner@northwestern.edu
Bio-protocol author page: a3549
 and Christian Stehlik
Christian StehlikAffiliation: Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, USA
For correspondence: c-stehlik@northwestern.edu
Bio-protocol author page: a3550
,  date: 10/5/2016, 1087 views, 0 Q&A
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.1944.

[Abstract] In response to pathogen infection and tissue damage, inflammasome sensors such as NLRP3 and AIM2 are activated, which triggers PYRIN domain (PYD)-mediated ASC nucleation, followed by self-perpetuating ASC polymerization, which ultimately culminates in caspase-1 activation, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18 processing and release and pyroptosis (Ratsimandresy ...
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[Bio101] Thioglycollate Induced Peritonitis

Author: Zheng Liu
Zheng LiuAffiliation: The Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Manhasset, NY, USA
For correspondence: zl2119@caa.columbia.edu
Bio-protocol author page: a12
,  Anne Davidson Lab, date: 6/20/2011, 18724 views, 3 Q&A
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.84.

[Abstract] Intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of thioglycollate elicits a robust influx of neutrophils into peritoneal cavity. The trafficking of the cells is believed to be mediated by chemokines CXCL1, CXCL2, and CXCL8 (Call et al., 2001; Cacalano et al., 1994). Thus this model can be used to test the ability ...

[Bio101] Quantitative Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) to Measure Serum Levels of Murine Anti-dsDNA Antibodies

Author: Zheng Liu
Zheng LiuAffiliation: The Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Manhasset, NY, USA
For correspondence: zl2119@caa.columbia.edu
Bio-protocol author page: a12
,  Anne Davidson Lab, date: 2/20/2011, 8297 views, 0 Q&A
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.32.

[Abstract] ELISA is an easy and relatively sensitive way to measure protein concentration. This protocol describes how to measure serum levels of murine anti-dsDNA antibodies. Circulating anti-dsDNA antibody is a hallmark of SLE both in human patients and in many SLE mouse models. This protocol was developed or ...

Bacterial Counts in Spleen

Authors: Elías Barquero-Calvo
Elías Barquero-CalvoAffiliation: Programa de Investigación en Enfermedades Tropicales, Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad Nacional, Heredia, Costa Rica
Bio-protocol author page: a954
, Carlos Chacón-Díaz
Carlos Chacón-DíazAffiliation: Centro de Investigación en Enfermedades Tropicales, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
Bio-protocol author page: a958
, Esteban Chaves-Olarte
Esteban Chaves-OlarteAffiliation: Centro de Investigación en Enfermedades Tropicales, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
Bio-protocol author page: a960
 and Edgardo Moreno
Edgardo MorenoAffiliation: Programa de Investigación en Enfermedades Tropicales, Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad Nacional, Heredia, Costa Rica
For correspondence: emoreno@racsa.co.cr
Bio-protocol author page: a961
,  date: 11/5/2013, 8057 views, 0 Q&A
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.954.

[Abstract] Bacterial loads can be determined as colony forming units (CFU) at any point of the infection by culturing spleen homogenates on agar plates. This is a reliable method for comparing the kinetics of infection in various mouse strains, estimating the virulence of different bacterial mutants or isolates ...

Gastric Aspiration Models

Authors: Bruce A. Davidson
Bruce A. DavidsonAffiliation: Department of Anesthesiology, and Pathology and Anatomical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, USA
For correspondence: bdavidso@buffalo.edu
Bio-protocol author page: a1019
 and Ravi Alluri
Ravi AlluriAffiliation: Department of Anesthesiology, and Pathology and Anatomical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, USA
Bio-protocol author page: a1020
,  date: 11/20/2013, 7440 views, 0 Q&A
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.968.

[Abstract] The procedures described below are for producing gastric aspiration pneumonitis in mice with alterations for rats and rabbits described parenthetically. We use 4 different injury vehicles delivered intratracheally to investigate the inflammatory responses to gastric aspiration:
1) Normal saline (NS) ...

Competitive Bone-marrow Transplantations

Authors: Maria Maryanovich
Maria Maryanovich Affiliation: Biological Regulation, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
Bio-protocol author page: a1393
 and Atan Gross
Atan GrossAffiliation: Biological Regulation, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
For correspondence: atan.gross@weizmann.ac.il
Bio-protocol author page: a1394
,  date: 6/5/2014, 6762 views, 0 Q&A
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.1145.

[Abstract] Competitive bone marrow transplantation assay measures multi-lineage reconstitution of hematopoiesis in irradiated transplant recipient mice. Thus this assay is routinely used to determine haematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) functionality in vivo. The principle of the method is to transplant ...

Allergen Sensitization and Challenge to Ovalbumin

Authors: François Daubeuf
François DaubeufAffiliation: Laboratory of Therapeutic Innovation, UMR7200, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Strasbourg, Illkirch, France
Bio-protocol author page: a228
, Laurent Reber
Laurent ReberAffiliation: Laboratory of Therapeutic Innovation, UMR7200, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Strasbourg, Illkirch, France
Bio-protocol author page: a229
 and Nelly Frossard
Nelly FrossardAffiliation: Laboratory of Therapeutic Innovation, UMR7200, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Strasbourg, Illkirch, France
For correspondence: nelly.frossard@unistra.fr
Bio-protocol author page: a230
,  date: 4/5/2013, 6507 views, 0 Q&A
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.644.

[Abstract] This protocol describes the sensitization and challenge of mice with ovalbumin for use as an acute murine model of asthma. This protocol induces reproducible airway inflammation and remodelling, and bronchial hyperresponsiveness to methacholine as measured by barometric plethysmography, as well as by ...

Analysis of Tumor-infiltrating Lymphocytes Following CD45 Enrichment

Authors: Rachel Perret
Rachel PerretAffiliation: Ludwig Center for Cancer Research, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
For correspondence: rperret@fredhutch.org
Bio-protocol author page: a1603
, Sophie R. Sierro
Sophie R. SierroAffiliation: Ludwig Center for Cancer Research, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
Bio-protocol author page: a1604
, Natalia K. Botelho
Natalia K. BotelhoAffiliation: Ludwig Center for Cancer Research, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
Bio-protocol author page: a1605
, Stephanie Corgnac
Stephanie CorgnacAffiliation: Ludwig Center for Cancer Research, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
Bio-protocol author page: a1606
, Alena Donda
Alena DondaAffiliation: Ludwig Center for Cancer Research, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
Bio-protocol author page: a1607
 and Pedro Romero
Pedro RomeroAffiliation: Ludwig Center for Cancer Research, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
Bio-protocol author page: a1608
,  date: 8/20/2014, 6477 views, 0 Q&A
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.1218.

[Abstract] Measuring antigen-specific T cell responses in the blood and lymphoid organs of vaccinated mice can give us a useful indication of the potency of a vaccine formulation. Unfortunately, systemic or even localized lymphoid T cell responses are not always predictive of the ability of a vaccine to induce ...

Quantitative Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) to Measure Serum Levels of Murine Anti-cardiolipin Antibodies

Author: Zheng Liu
Zheng LiuAffiliation: The Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Manhasset, NY, USA
For correspondence: zl2119@caa.columbia.edu
Bio-protocol author page: a12
,  date: 6/20/2012, 6449 views, 0 Q&A
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.227.

[Abstract] The circulating anticardiolipin antibody is a hallmark of antiphospholipid syndrome. It also appears in a number of autoimmune mouse models and is indicative of the break of tolerance against self antigens. This protocol describes a reliable method to determine the relative serum titer of anticardiolipin ...

Murine in vivo CD8+ T Cell Killing Assay

Authors: Myoungjoo V. Kim
Myoungjoo V. KimAffiliation: Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, USA
For correspondence: myoungjoo.kim@yale.edu
Bio-protocol author page: a1487
, Weiming Ouyang
Weiming OuyangAffiliation: Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, USA
Bio-protocol author page: a1460
, Will Liao
Will LiaoAffiliation: Genomics, New York Genome Center, New York, USA
Bio-protocol author page: a1461
, Michael Q. Zhang
Michael Q. ZhangAffiliation: Molecular and Cellular Biology Department, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, USA
Bio-protocol author page: a1462
 and Ming O. Li
Ming O. LiAffiliation: Department of Immunology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), New York, USA
Bio-protocol author page: a1463
,  date: 7/5/2014, 6134 views, 0 Q&A
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.1172.

[Abstract] Antigen-specific killing ability of effector CD8+ T cells is critical for protective immunity against infection. Here, we describe in vivo cytotoxic T cell assay to examine effector function of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells. Mice infected with Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes) expressing chicken ...

Protocol for Macrophage Depletion from Mice

Authors: Zuoxiang Xiao
Zuoxiang XiaoAffiliation: Cancer Inflammation Program, NCI-Frederick, NIH, Frederick, USA
For correspondence: xiaoz2@mail.nih.gov
Bio-protocol author page: a1391
 and Qun Jiang
Qun JiangAffiliation: Cancer Inflammation Program, NCI-Frederick, NIH, Frederick, USA
Bio-protocol author page: a1392
,  date: 6/5/2014, 5824 views, 0 Q&A
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.1144.

[Abstract] Macrophage depletion has been used extensively to study autoimmune disease and more recently in tumor models. The clodronate-containing liposomes will be recognized as foreign particles and get engulfed by macrophages upon dosing into the animal by the chosen routes. Consequently, macrophages that have ...
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